Advaita Vedānta
Explanation
Advaita Vedānta (non-duality) is one of the great schools of Indian philosophy, systematised principally by Shankara in the 8th century, although its roots reach into the Upaniṣads (anonymous compositions of the first millennium BCE) and into Vedic literature. Its central thesis is of extraordinary radicality: ultimate reality (Brahman) and the deepest self of every being (Ātman) are one and the same. The world of multiple separate beings is an appearance (maya), not an ultimate ontological truth.
Brahman, in Advaita, is not a personal god separate from the world, but the absolute reality, single, without determining attributes, from which everything derives. Ātman is the self, the pure witness of experience, that which is neither body, nor emotions, nor changing thoughts. The great discovery of the Upaniṣads is summed up in the famous equation: tat tvam asi ("that art thou"). The observer and the observed, in the final analysis, are the same being.
Maya (illusion) does not mean that the world does not exist, but that our way of experiencing it (as multiple, separate, with an isolated self facing objects) is an epistemological misunderstanding. We identify with body, biography, social role, and believe that we are that. Liberation (moksha) consists in recognizing that what we truly are, the pure witness of all experience, is identical to the ground of being.
The realization of this non-duality is not reached by mere argumentation, but by the combination of study (shravana), reflection (manana) and meditation (nididhyasana) under the guidance of a realized master (guru). Meditative practices aim to disidentify consciousness from mental contents and recognize it in its purity. The goal is not to have an extraordinary experience, but to recognize what one already is: the pure consciousness that never ceased to be.
For the theory of consciousness, Advaita offers a radical idealist position: consciousness is fundamental, not the brain. The brain and the world are phenomena that appear in consciousness, not the other way around. This position has resonances with Berkeley's idealism in the West, with certain readings of quantum mechanics (Wigner), and with contemporary cosmopsychism. It is a serious alternative to materialism, articulated through centuries of philosophical and practical refinement.
The influence of Advaita Vedānta has been vast: in India, it shaped much of subsequent philosophical and religious thought; in the West, it inspired Schopenhauer, Emerson, Aldous Huxley, Joseph Campbell, and the perennialist movement (Huston Smith) that seeks a common ground in the great spiritual traditions. Contemporary figures such as Ramana Maharshi and Nisargadatta have given Advaita a modern and accessible expression. It remains one of the most influential references for anyone wishing to think of consciousness beyond the brain-centric framework.
Strengths
- Millennial philosophical sophistication.
- Contemplative practice for verifying its claims.
- Detailed phenomenology of states of consciousness.
- Fruitful dialogue with contemporary idealisms.
Main critiques
- Verification dependent on practice that is hard to operationalize scientifically.
- Concepts of māyā and ignorance defy formalization.
- Tension with scientific realism about the material world.